Nucleus

the cell's control center.
In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome. The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression — the nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a mesh work within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes. Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are required that regulate Nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions. The interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bound sub compartments, its contents are not uniform, and a number of sub-nuclear bodies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best-known of these is the nucleolus, which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA.
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The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered. What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723). He observed a "Lumen", the nucleus, in the red blood cells of salmon. Unlike mammalian red blood cells, those of other vertebrates still possess nuclei. The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in 1804 and in more detail in 1831 by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in a talk at the Linnean Society of London. Brown was studying orchids under microscope when he observed an opaque area, which he called the areola or nucleus, in the cells of the flower's outer layer.^[3] He did not suggest a potential function. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells, thus he introduced the name "Cytoblast" (cell builder). He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around "cytoblasts". Franz Meyen was a strong opponent of this view, having already described cells multiplying by division and believing that many cells would have no nuclei. The idea that cells can be generated de novo, by the "cytoblast" or otherwise, contradicted work by Robert Remak (1852) and Rudolf Virchow (1855) who decisively propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells ("Omnis cellula e cellula"). The function of the nucleus remained unclear.
Between 1877 and 1878, Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin eggs, showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus. This was the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a (single) nucleated cell. This was in contradiction to Ernst Haeckel's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be repeated during embryonic development, including generation of the first nucleated cell from a "Monerula", a structureless mass of primordial mucus ("Urschleim"). Therefore, the necessity of the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time. However, Hertwig confirmed his observation in other animal groups, e.g., amphibians and molluscs. Eduard Strasburger produced the same results for plants (1884). This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity. In 1873, August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity. The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later, after mitosis was discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century; the chromosome theory of heredity was therefore developed.

knowledge base

A body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area.

Human-readable knowledge bases are designed to enable people to retrieve and use the knowledge they contain. They are commonly used to complement a help desk or for sharing information among employees within an organization. They might store troubleshooting information, articles, white papers, user manuals, knowledge tags, or answers to frequently asked questions. Typically, a search engine is used to locate information in the system, or users may browse through a classification scheme.
A text-based system that can include groups of documents with hyperlinks among them is known as a Hypertext System.^[3] Hypertext systems support the decision process by relieving the user of the significant effort it takes to relate and remember things." ^[4] Wiki software can be used to provide a hypertext-system KB. Knowledge bases can exist on both computers and mobile phones in a hypertext format.^[5]
A human-readable knowledge base can be coupled with a machine-readable one, via uni- or bidirectional replication or some real-time interface. Computer programs can then use AI techniques on the computer-readable portion of data to provide better search results, check the integrity of facts found in different documents, and provide better authoring tools. An example is the machine-readable DBpedia extraction from human-readable

Multiple Intelligences

The idea that human intelligence is comprised of a varied set of abilities rather than a single, all-encompassing one

The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences as a model of intelligence that differentiates it into specific (primarily sensory) "modalities", rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability.
Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, and that there are only very weak correlations among them. For example, the theory postulates that a child who learns to multiply easily is not necessarily more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on this task. The child who takes more time to master multiplication may best learn to multiply through a different approach, may excel in a field outside mathematics, or may be looking at and understanding the multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level. Such a fundamental understanding can result in slowness and can hide a mathematical intelligence potentially higher than that of a child who quickly memorizes the multiplication table despite possessing a shallower understanding of the process of multiplication.
Intelligence tests and psychometrics have generally found high correlations between different aspects of intelligence, rather than the low correlations which Gardner's theory predicts, supporting the prevailing theory of general intelligence rather than multiple intelligences (MI). The theory has been widely criticized by mainstream psychology for its lack of empirical evidence, and its dependence on subjective judgement. Certain models of alternative education employ the approaches suggested by the theory.

life-span perspective

An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.
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Emergencies happen at a particular time in the life of a person or a community.  People are born before (or during!) the emergency and most will live after the emergency is over. The circumstances of our lives at the time of an emergency influence our experience of it – and its impact on our later life.
A child born in a refugee camp, for example, will have a very different memory of the emergency than the mother of that child who was raped prior to arrival. A shopkeeper who loses his entire life work will have different needs than a young adult just starting a career.
The negative effects of disasters are obvious, such as loss of family members and destruction of homes and businesses. But there can be positive impacts as well. A family that has long lived in poverty may have new opportunities for a better life after resources flow in after a disaster. Or a woman may find new dignity in being able to earn income after undergoing a culturally-sensitive training programme.
For an individual, the long-term effects are moderated most by the support of family and community. Families and communities are made up of people of all different ages with different relationships. Through these social networks, people both give and receive support, which contributes to healing and restoration of a functional life. We need to support these restorative social networks. People of all ages should be welcomed into the healing process, because they all have things to contribute.
Emergencies are an opportunity to develop skills and learn methods that will help throughout life. One of the most important is resilience – a skill vital to recovery from the current emergency, and to coping with future challenges.

Intellectual Development

Children are not little adults. Until they reach the age of 15 or so they are not capable of reasoning as an adult. The following information is based on the work of Jean Piaget. He was not a psychologist. He was a developmental biologist who devoted his life to closely observing and recording the intellectual abilities of infants, children and adolescents.

The stages of intellectual development formulated by Piaget appear to be related to major developments in brain growth. The human brain is not fully developed until late adolescence or in the case of males sometimes early adulthood. We often expect children to think like adults when they are not yet capable of doing so. It is important that parents know what to expect from their child as they develop and to be sure that the expectations they may have for their child at a given age are realistic.

Sensory Motor Period (0 – 24 months)
Stage-Age	Characteristic Behavior
Reflexive Stage (0-2 months)	Simple reflex activity such as grasping, sucking.
Primary Circular Reactions(2-4 months)	Reflexive behaviors occur in stereotyped repetition such as opening and closing fingers repetitively.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)	Repetition of change actions to reproduce interesting consequences such as kicking one’s feet to more a mobile suspended over the crib.
Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8-12 months)	Responses become coordinated into more complex sequences. Actions take on an “intentional” character such as the infant reaches behind a screen to obtain a hidden object.
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)	Discovery of new ways to produce the same consequence or obtain the same goal such as the infant may pull a pillow toward him in an attempt to get a toy resting on it.
Invention of New Means Through Mental Combination (18-24 months)	Evidence of an internal representational system. Symbolizing the problem-solving sequence before actually responding. Deferred imitation.
The Preoperational Period (2-7 years)
Stage-Age	Characteristic Behavior
Preoperational Phase (2-4 years)	Increased use of verbal representation but speech is egocentric. The beginnings of symbolic rather than simple motor play. Transductive reasoning. Can think about something without the object being present by use of language.
Intuitive Phase (4-7 years)	Speech becomes more social, less egocentric. The child has an intuitive grasp of logical concepts in some areas. However, there is still a tendency to focus attention on one aspect of an object while ignoring others. Concepts formed are crude and irreversible. Easy to believe in magical increase, decrease, disappearance. Reality not firm. Perceptions dominate judgment.In moral-ethical realm, the child is not able to show principles underlying best behavior. Rules of a game not develop, only uses simple do’s and don’ts imposed by authority.
Period of Concrete Operations (7-12 years) Characteristic Behavior: Evidence for organized, logical thought. There is the ability to perform multiple classification tasks, order objects in a logical sequence, and comprehend the principle of conservation. thinking becomes less transductive and less egocentric. The child is capable of concrete problem-solving. Some reversibility now possible (quantities moved can be restored such as in arithmetic: 3+4 = 7 and 7-4 = 3, etc.) Class logic-finding bases to sort unlike objects into logical groups where previously it was on superficial perceived attribute such as color. Categorical labels such as “number” or animal” now available.
Period of Formal Operations (12 years and onwards) Characteristic Behavior: Thought becomes more abstract, incorporating the principles of formal logic. The ability to generate abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses and their possible outcomes is evident. Thinking becomes less tied to concrete reality. Formal logical systems can be acquired. Can handle proportions, algebraic manipulation, other purely abstract processes. If a + b = x then a = x – b. If ma/ca = IQ = 1.00 then Ma = CA. Prepositional logic, as-if and if-then steps. Can use aids such as axioms to transcend human

Herpes

Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted infection caused by HSV (herpes simplex virus). This virus affects the genitals, the cervix, as well as the skin in other parts of the body. There are two types of herpes simplex viruses: a) HSVp1, or Herpes Type 1, and b) HSV-2, or Herpes Type 2.

Herpes is a chronic condition. Chronic, in medicine, means long-term. However, many people never have symptoms even though they are carrying the virus. Many people with HSV have recurring genital herpes. When a person is initially infected the recurrences, if they do occur, tend to happen more frequently. Over time the remission periods get longer and longer. Each occurrence tends to become less severe with time.

HSV is highly contagious

The herpes simplex virus (HSV) is easily human transmissible. It is passed from one person to another by close, direct contact. The most common mode of transmission is through vaginal, anal or oral sex. When somebody becomes infected with HSV, it will generally remain dormant.

Most people who are infected with HSV do not know it because their symptoms are so slight - many people have no discernible symptoms.

What are the symptoms for genital herpes?

For those who do experience symptoms, they are generally present as blisters on the genitals, and sores around the mouth.

Most people do not have apparent symptoms for many months, or even years after becoming infected. Those who do have symptoms during the initial period will usually notice them about 4 to 7 days after being infected.

Primary infection symptoms

Primary infection is a term used for an outbreak of genital herpes that is evident when a person is first infected. Primary infection symptoms, if they are experienced, are usually more severe than subsequent recurrences. Symptoms can last up to 20 days and may include:

• Blisters and ulceration on the cervix
• Vaginal discharge
• Pain when urinating
• A temperature (fever)
• Malaise (feeling unwell)
• Cold sores around the mouth
• Red blisters - these are generally painful and they soon burst and leave ulcers on the external genital area, thighs, buttocks and rectum

In most cases the ulcers will heal and the patient will not have any lasting scars.

Recurrent infection symptoms

These symptoms tend to be less severe and do not last as long, because the patient's body has built up some immunity to the virus. In most cases symptoms will not last for more than 10 days.

• Burning/tingling around genitals before blisters appear
• Women may have blisters and ulceration on the cervix
• Cold sores around the mouth
• Red blisters - these are generally painful and the soon burst and leave ulcers on the external genital area, thighs, buttocks and rectum

Eventually recurrences happen less often and are much less severe. Patients with HSV-1 will have fewer recurrences and less severe symptoms than people infected with HSV-2.

Growth Spurts

During a growth spurt, breastfed babies nurse more often than usual (sometimes as often as every hour) and often act fussier than usual.
The increase in baby’s milk intake during growth spurts is temporary. In exclusively breastfed babies, milk intake increases quickly during the first few weeks of life, then stays about the same between one and six months. As solids are gradually introduced after six months, baby’s milk intake will gradually decrease.
Definititon-Most babies go through several growth spurts (also called frequency days) during the first 12 months.
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When do babies have growth spurts?

Common times for growth spurts are during the first few days at home and around 7-10 days, 2-3 weeks, 4-6 weeks, 3 months, 4 months, 6 months and 9 months (more or less). Babies don’t read calendars, however, so your baby may do things differently.
Growth spurts don’t stop after the first year – most moms notice growth spurts every few months during the toddler years and periodically thereafter on through the teenage years.

How long do growth spurts last?

Growth spurts usually last 2-3 days, but sometimes last a week or so.

What is the best way to handle a growth spurt?

Follow your child’s lead. Baby will automatically get more milk by nursing more frequently, and your milk supply will increase due to the increased nursing. It is not necessary (or advised) to supplement your baby with formula or expressed milk during a growth spurt. Supplementing (and/or scheduling feeds) interferes with the natural supply and demand of milk production and will prevent your body from getting the message to make more milk during the growth spurt.
Some nursing moms feel more hungry or thirsty when baby is going through a growth spurt. Listen to your body — you may need to eat or drink more during the time that baby is nursing more often.
See My baby is fussy! Is something wrong? for tips on comforting a fussy baby.

Formal Operational Stage

The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of cognitive development in Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 or 12 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood. In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly, reason logically, and draw conclusions from the information available as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.
Definition -The formal operational stage (Piaget, 1927) begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning

Article - At about the age of twelve, our brains function at a higher level known as formal operational stage. During this stage, people shift from understanding concrete, logical material to more intangible concepts. Individuals begin to comprehend hypothetical situations, scientific thinking such as deducing and higher levels of logic such as systematic reasoning. Systematic thinking involves testing the different possible pathways and predicting both the outcome of a solution and the consequences through logic. An example of this would be if a child is given a broken toy – a child in concrete operational stage may alter multiple aspects of the toy, aimlessly adjusting the parts; whereas a child in formal operational stage will alter one piece at a time indicating that they understand the relationship between the different parts.  Another large aspect of this stage of cognitive development includes understanding complex reversibility. For example: a child may understand the joke – What is both a fish and goldfish? A goldfish. Formal operational thinkers can easily answer this question – but scientists argue that so can most 7-year-olds.

Emotions

Emotions are thoughts that led to feelings and cause changes in the body.

Emotions, often called feelings, include experiences such as love, hate, anger, trust, joy, panic, fear, and grief. Emotions are related to, but different from, mood. Emotions are specific reactions to a particular event that are usually of fairly short duration. Mood is a more general feeling such as happiness, sadness, frustration, contentment, or anxiety that lasts for a longer time.

Definition- A natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.

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Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it is an inborn characteristic.
Since 1990, Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer have been the leading researchers on emotional intelligence. In their influential article "Emotional Intelligence," they defined emotional intelligence as, "the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions" (1990).
Salovey and Mayer proposed a model that identified four different factors of emotional intelligence: the perception of emotion, the ability reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotion and the ability to manage emotions.

1. Perceiving Emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to accurately perceive them. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.


2. Reasoning With Emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.


3. Understanding Emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of their anger and what it might mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that he is dissatisfied with your work; or it could be because he got a speeding ticket on his way to work that morning or that he's been fighting with his wife.


4. Managing Emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a key part of emotional intelligence. Regulating emotions, responding appropriately and responding to the emotions of others are all important aspect of emotional management.

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